When the objective of the study belongs to empiria, the tangible world of people, objects and events, the study is called "empirical" as a contrast to formal sciences like mathematics and logic, which have no association to empiria.
conventional dichotomy qualitative and quantitative approaches are two cultures of research
in the study of activities qualitative and quantitative allow mixing several modes of presentation in the research
the methods in the empirical study of human activities and artefacts on the basis of the expected results from the study:
Descriptive : aims primarily at gathering knowledge (i.e. descriptions and explanations) about the object of study but does not wish to modify the object. The target is to find out how things are, or how they have been.
Normative : tries to define how things should be, includes specifying or planning improvements to the object of study but it does not include carrying out the plans in practice.
sometimes called "applied research"
Development : aim at improving the object of study beside carrying out the practical operations, the project includes their planning and the research that is needed to give a basis for the plans.
determining the extent of the study,
how much material has to be collected,
the selection of analysis method.
Intensive study : searches facts which concern specific models If the study is normative, the target will be to remove a specific practical problem or to improve the same object or other similar objects. Because of the restricted number of objects studied thoroughly in their own environment with all their relevant properties and relationships, thus achieving a deep understanding of their position and meaning in the social and cultural context.
Extensive study : seeks knowledge which is common to all or most of the objects in the class "nomothetic", knowledge for improving the entire class of objects. The number of objects in the study will usually be great, and it will be necessary to restrict the amount of information .
Extensive study which concerns the entire class of cases: Describing or explaining invariances, "laws", common to all the cases in the class.
The four above mentioned approaches select one of them as a starting point when planning your own project as a logical chain of operations which starts from the available inputs of theory and data and finally produces the desired descriptive or normative output.
Jul 20, 2008
What is a peer-reviewed journal?
Q: What is a peer-reviewed journal?
A: A scholarly periodical which requires that each article submitted for publication be judged by an independent panel of experts (scholarly or scientific peers). Articles not approved by a majority of these peers are not accepted for publication by the journal.
Peer-reviewed journals can be identified by their editorial statements or instructions to authors (usually in first few pages of the journal or at the end), and also by consulting Ulrich's International Periodicals Directory, available online at: http://www.library.uiuc.edu/orr/get.php?instid=258215
When searching full-text databases such as InfoTrac and EBSCO, a search can be limited to peer-reviewed or refereed sources simply by checking a box on the search screen.
Other common characteristics of scholarly, peer-reviewed, or refereed journal
Formal in format
Sources are cited with footnotes or a bibliography at the end of the article
Authors are scholars and researchers in the field and are identified as such
Purpose of the article is to publish the results of research
Publisher may be a professional organization, research institution; usually not-for-profit
Very little advertising
Graphics are usually statistical illustrations, in black-and-white
Examples:
American Journal of Public Health
Annals of Tourism Research
British Journal of Audiology
European Physical Education Review
Journal of Aging Studies
Sport Marketing Quarterly etc. etc.
Most of the journals in the ALS Library are peer-reviewed. When in doubt, consult Ulrich's at the url above.
A: A scholarly periodical which requires that each article submitted for publication be judged by an independent panel of experts (scholarly or scientific peers). Articles not approved by a majority of these peers are not accepted for publication by the journal.
Peer-reviewed journals can be identified by their editorial statements or instructions to authors (usually in first few pages of the journal or at the end), and also by consulting Ulrich's International Periodicals Directory, available online at: http://www.library.uiuc.edu/orr/get.php?instid=258215
When searching full-text databases such as InfoTrac and EBSCO, a search can be limited to peer-reviewed or refereed sources simply by checking a box on the search screen.
Other common characteristics of scholarly, peer-reviewed, or refereed journal
Formal in format
Sources are cited with footnotes or a bibliography at the end of the article
Authors are scholars and researchers in the field and are identified as such
Purpose of the article is to publish the results of research
Publisher may be a professional organization, research institution; usually not-for-profit
Very little advertising
Graphics are usually statistical illustrations, in black-and-white
Examples:
American Journal of Public Health
Annals of Tourism Research
British Journal of Audiology
European Physical Education Review
Journal of Aging Studies
Sport Marketing Quarterly etc. etc.
Most of the journals in the ALS Library are peer-reviewed. When in doubt, consult Ulrich's at the url above.
Overview of Design Research
Overview of Design Research
understanding of a phenomenon
phenomenon may be created as opposed to naturally occurring. The phenomenon is typically a set of behaviors of some entity(ies) that is found interesting by the researcher or by a group
knowledge that allows prediction of the behavior of some aspect of the phenomenon.
The set of activities appropriate to the understanding (knowledge) are its research methods or techniques.
Design
Design deals with creating something new that does not exist The outer environment is the total set of external forces and effects that act on the artifact. The inner environment is the set of components that make up the artifact and their relationships –
In following the flow of creative effort types of new knowledge that arise from design activities and the reason that this knowledge is most readily found during a design effort will become apparent.
In this model all design begins with Awareness of a problem.
Design research is sometimes called “Improvement Research” emphasizes the problem- solving/performance-improving nature of the activity.
Suggestions for a problem solution are abductively drawn from the existing knowledge/theory base for the problem area
Awareness of the Problem, is indicated by the Circumscription arrow. Conclusion indicates termination of a specific design project.
New knowledge production is indicated in the Circumscription process is especially important to understanding design research because it generates understanding that could only be gained from the specific act of construction.
Circumscription is a formal logical method which assumes that every fragment of knowledge is valid only in certain situations.
The Outputs of Design Research
four general outputs for design research:
constructs, models, methods, and instantiations.
Constructs
The conceptual vocabulary of a domain
Models
A set of propositions or statements expressing relationships between constructs
Methods
A set of steps used to perform a task – how-to knowledge
Instantiations
The operationalization of constructs, models and methods.
Better theories
Artifact construction as analogous to experimental natural science
The Philosophical Grounding of Design Research
Ontology is the study that describes the nature of reality: for example, what is real and what is not, what is fundamental and what is derivative?
Epistemology is the study that explores the nature of knowledge: for example, on what does knowledge depend and how can we be certain of what we know?
Axiology is the study of values: what values does an individual or group hold and why?
Design research by definition changes the state-of-the-world through the introduction of novel artifacts.
Design Research Methodology (by Example)
Awareness of Problem:
An awareness of an interesting problem may come from multiple sources: new developments in industry or in a reference discipline. Reading in an allied discipline may also provide the opportunity for application of new findings to the researcher’s field. The output of this phase is a Proposal, formal or informal, for a new research effort.
Suggestion: The Suggestion phase follows immediately behind the proposal and is intimately connected with it as the dotted line around Proposal and Tentative Design.
after consideration of an interesting problem a Tentative Design does not present itself to the researcher, the idea (Proposal) will be set aside.
Suggestion is an essentially creative step wherein new functionality is envisioned based on a novel configuration of either existing or new and existing elements.
The step has been criticized as introducing non-repeatability into the design research
method; human creativity is still a poorly understood cognitive process. However the step has necessary analogues in all research methods; for example, in positivist research creativity is inherent in the leap from curiosity about an organizational phenomena to the development of appropriate constructs that operationalize the phenomena and an appropriate research design for their measurement.
Development: The Tentative Design is implemented in this phase. The techniques for implementation will of course vary depending on the artifact to be constructed.
An algorithm may require construction of a formal proof. An expert system embodying novel assumptions about human cognition in an area of interest will require software development, probably using a high-level package or tool. The implementation itself can be very pedestrian and need not involve novelty beyond the state-of-practice for the given artifact; the novelty is primarily in the design, not the construction of the artifact.
Evaluation: Once constructed, the artifact is evaluated according to criteria that are always implicit and frequently made explicit in the Proposal (Awareness of Problem phase). Deviations from expectations, both quantitative and qualitative are carefully noted and must be tentatively explained. That is, the evaluation phase contains an analytic sub-phase in which hypotheses are made about the behavior of the artifact.
Conclusion: This phase is the finale of a specific research effort. Typically, it is the result of satisficing, that is, though there are still deviations in the behavior of the artifact from the revised hypothetical predictions, the results are adjudged “good enough.”
“firm” - facts that have been learned and can be repeatably applied or behavior that can be repeatably
understanding of a phenomenon
phenomenon may be created as opposed to naturally occurring. The phenomenon is typically a set of behaviors of some entity(ies) that is found interesting by the researcher or by a group
knowledge that allows prediction of the behavior of some aspect of the phenomenon.
The set of activities appropriate to the understanding (knowledge) are its research methods or techniques.
Design
Design deals with creating something new that does not exist The outer environment is the total set of external forces and effects that act on the artifact. The inner environment is the set of components that make up the artifact and their relationships –
In following the flow of creative effort types of new knowledge that arise from design activities and the reason that this knowledge is most readily found during a design effort will become apparent.
In this model all design begins with Awareness of a problem.
Design research is sometimes called “Improvement Research” emphasizes the problem- solving/performance-improving nature of the activity.
Suggestions for a problem solution are abductively drawn from the existing knowledge/theory base for the problem area
Awareness of the Problem, is indicated by the Circumscription arrow. Conclusion indicates termination of a specific design project.
New knowledge production is indicated in the Circumscription process is especially important to understanding design research because it generates understanding that could only be gained from the specific act of construction.
Circumscription is a formal logical method which assumes that every fragment of knowledge is valid only in certain situations.
The Outputs of Design Research
four general outputs for design research:
constructs, models, methods, and instantiations.
Constructs
The conceptual vocabulary of a domain
Models
A set of propositions or statements expressing relationships between constructs
Methods
A set of steps used to perform a task – how-to knowledge
Instantiations
The operationalization of constructs, models and methods.
Better theories
Artifact construction as analogous to experimental natural science
The Philosophical Grounding of Design Research
Ontology is the study that describes the nature of reality: for example, what is real and what is not, what is fundamental and what is derivative?
Epistemology is the study that explores the nature of knowledge: for example, on what does knowledge depend and how can we be certain of what we know?
Axiology is the study of values: what values does an individual or group hold and why?
Design research by definition changes the state-of-the-world through the introduction of novel artifacts.
Design Research Methodology (by Example)
Awareness of Problem:
An awareness of an interesting problem may come from multiple sources: new developments in industry or in a reference discipline. Reading in an allied discipline may also provide the opportunity for application of new findings to the researcher’s field. The output of this phase is a Proposal, formal or informal, for a new research effort.
Suggestion: The Suggestion phase follows immediately behind the proposal and is intimately connected with it as the dotted line around Proposal and Tentative Design.
after consideration of an interesting problem a Tentative Design does not present itself to the researcher, the idea (Proposal) will be set aside.
Suggestion is an essentially creative step wherein new functionality is envisioned based on a novel configuration of either existing or new and existing elements.
The step has been criticized as introducing non-repeatability into the design research
method; human creativity is still a poorly understood cognitive process. However the step has necessary analogues in all research methods; for example, in positivist research creativity is inherent in the leap from curiosity about an organizational phenomena to the development of appropriate constructs that operationalize the phenomena and an appropriate research design for their measurement.
Development: The Tentative Design is implemented in this phase. The techniques for implementation will of course vary depending on the artifact to be constructed.
An algorithm may require construction of a formal proof. An expert system embodying novel assumptions about human cognition in an area of interest will require software development, probably using a high-level package or tool. The implementation itself can be very pedestrian and need not involve novelty beyond the state-of-practice for the given artifact; the novelty is primarily in the design, not the construction of the artifact.
Evaluation: Once constructed, the artifact is evaluated according to criteria that are always implicit and frequently made explicit in the Proposal (Awareness of Problem phase). Deviations from expectations, both quantitative and qualitative are carefully noted and must be tentatively explained. That is, the evaluation phase contains an analytic sub-phase in which hypotheses are made about the behavior of the artifact.
Conclusion: This phase is the finale of a specific research effort. Typically, it is the result of satisficing, that is, though there are still deviations in the behavior of the artifact from the revised hypothetical predictions, the results are adjudged “good enough.”
“firm” - facts that have been learned and can be repeatably applied or behavior that can be repeatably
Building the Essay Draft
Building the Essay Draft
Once you know what you want to talk about and you have written your thesis statement, you are ready to build the body of your essay.
The thesis statement will usually be followed by the body of the paper, the paragraphs that develop the thesis by explaining your ideas and backing them up with examples or evidence.
This is, of course, the most important part of the paper, because you are giving your reader a clear idea of what you think and why you think it.
After you have completed the body of your paper, you can decide what you want to say in your introduction and in your conclusion.
Development Options
For each reason or main aspect you have to support your thesis, remember to state your point clearly and explain it. One useful technique is to read your thesis sentence over and ask yourself what questions a reader might ask about it. Then answer those questions, explaining and giving examples or evidence.
Compare and contrast: show how one thing is similar to another, and then how the two are different--emphasizing the side that seems more important to you. For example, if your thesis states that "Jazz is a serious art form," you might compare and contrast a jazz composition to a classical one.
You may show your reader what the opposition thinks--that is, reasons why some people do not agree with your thesis--and then refute those reasons--show why they are wrong. On the other hand, if you feel that the opposition isn't entirely wrong, you may say so, that is, concede, but then explain why your thesis is still the right opinion.
Think about the order in which you have made your points. Why have you presented a certain reason or main aspect that develops your thesis first, another second, etc.? If you can't see any particular value in presenting your points in the order you have, think about it some more, until you decide why the order you have is best, or else decide to change the order to one that makes more sense to you.
Finally, as you build the body of your paper, keep revisiting your thesis with three questions in mind. First, does each paragraph develop my thesis? Second, have I done all the development I wish had been done? Third, and most important, am I still satisfied with my working thesis, or have I developed my body in ways that mean I must adjust my thesis to fit what I have learned, what I believe, and what I have actually discussed?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Linking Paragraphs
Remember that you are the driver, and your readers are along for the ride. You don't want to make any sudden turns that will confuse your readers, annoy them, or distract them for a moment because they need to "get their bearings." That's why it's important to link your paragraphs together, giving your readers cues so that they see the relationship between one idea and the next, and how these ideas develop your thesis. Your goal is a smooth transition, a smooth movement from paragraph A to paragraph B, which explains why cue words that link paragraphs are often called transitions. (Still, your link between paragraphs may not be one word, but several, or even a whole sentence.)
Here are some ways of linking paragraphs:
To show simply that another idea is coming: also, moreover, in addition
To show that the next idea is the logical result of the previous one: therefore, consequently, thus, as a result
To show that the next idea seems to go against the previous one, or is not its logical result: however, nevertheless, still
A grab-bag of other choices for "special occasions": most importantly (to show you've come to your strongest point), on the other hand (to show a change in topic), finally (your final point, of course)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Introductions
The first thing to remember about your introduction is--it doesn't have to be the first thing--the first thing that you write, that is. After you have brainstormed and come up with a thesis and developed it in the body of your paper, then you can decide how to introduce your ideas to your reader. There can be a thousand introductions to the same paper--each designed to establish rapport with a different kind of reader.
The goals of an introduction are to:
get your reader's attention / arouse your reader's curiosity
provide any necessary background information before you state your thesis (often the last sentence of the introductory paragraph)
establish why you are writing the paper. You already know why you are writing, and who your reader is; now present that reason for writing to that reader.
Hints for writing your introduction:
Use the W's of journalism to decide what information to give: who, what, when, where. Remember that a history teacher doesn't need to be told "George Washington was the first president of the United States"--keep your reader in mind.
Add another W--why--as in "Why is this paper worth reading?" The answer could be that your topic is new, or controversial, or very important.
Catch your reader by surprise by starting with a description or narrative that doesn't hint at what your thesis will be. For example, a paper could start, "It is less than a 32nd of an inch long, but it can kill an adult human," to begin a paper about eliminating malaria-carrying mosquitoes.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Conclusions
There can be many different conclusions to the same paper (just as there can be many introductions), depending on who your readers are and where you want to direct them, what follow-up you expect of them after they finish your paper. Therefore, re-stating your thesis and summarizing the main points of your body should not be all that your conclusion does. In fact, most weak conclusions are merely re-statements of the thesis and summaries of the body without guiding the reader toward thinking about the implications of the thesis.
Here are some options for writing a strong conclusion:
Make a prediction about the future. Sure, you convinced us that thermal energy is terrific, but do you think it will become the standard energy source? When?
Give specific advice. If your readers now understand that multi-cultural education has great advantages (or disadvantages, or both--whatever your opinion might be), what should they do? Whom should they contact?
Put your topic in a larger context. Once you have proven that physical education should be part of every school's curriculum, perhaps we should consider other "frill" courses which are actually essential.
A final, important reminder: just as a conclusion should not be just a re-statement
of your thesis and summary of your body, it should also not be an entirely new topic, a door opened that you barely lead your reader through and leave them there lost. Just as in finding your topic and in forming your thesis, the safe and sane rule in writing a conclusion is, neither too little nor too much.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Revising and Proofreading
What is revising?
Writing is only half the job of writing. What's the answer to this riddle? Well, the writing process begins even before you put pen to paper. And, once you finish actually writing, the process continues. What you have written is not the finished essay, but a first draft--and, as you go over it each time to improve it, a second draft, third draft, as many as necessary to do the job right. Your final draft, edited and proofread, is your essay, ready for your reader's eyes.
Remember, though, that revision of an essay is not simply proofreading. Proofreading is checking over a draft to make sure that everything is complete and correct as far as spelling, grammar, sentence structure, punctuation, and such matters go; it's a necessary, if somewhat tedious and tricky job, one that a friend could help you with--even if that friend is a "Spellcheck" on a computer. No machine can help you with true revision, however, nor would you want it to--a re-vision of your essay, how you see things now, deciding whether your thesis and body, and also your introduction and conclusion, really express your vision.
Revision is global, taking another look at what ideas you have included in your paper and how they are arranged; proofreading is polishing, one spot at a time. That's why revision should come before proofreading: why polish what you might be changing anyway?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Hints for Revising and Proofreading
Leave some time--an hour, a day, several days--between writing and revising. You need some distance to switch from writer to editor, some distance between your initial vision and your re-vision.
Double check your writing assignment to be sure you haven't gone off course. It's all right if you've shifted from your original plan--if you know why you did and are happier this way.
Read aloud, and slowly. You need to get your eye and your ear to work together: at each point that something seems "funny," read it over again; if you're not sure what's wrong, or even if something's wrong, make a notation in the margin and come back to it later. Watch out for "padding." Tighten your sentences to eliminate excess words that dilute your ideas. Also be on the lookout for points that seem vague or incomplete; these could be wonderful opportunities for rethinking, clarifying, and further developing an idea.
Get to know what your particular quirks are as a writer--every writer has them! Do you give examples without explaining them, or forget links between paragraphs? Leave an extra re-reading or two just for your personal "favorites."
Get someone else into the act! Have others read your draft, or read it to them. Invite questions, and ask questions yourself, to see if your points are clear and well-developed. Remember, though, that some well-meaning "amateurs," including spouses, can be too easy--or too hard--on a piece of writing, especially one by someone close. Never change anything unless you are convinced that it should be changed.
Keep tools at hand, such as a dictionary, a thesaurus, and a writing handbook. Use them!
If you're using word processing, remember that computers are wonderful resources for editing and revising.
When you feel you've done everything you can, first by revising and then by proofreading, and have a nice clean final draft, put it aside and return later to re-see the whole essay. There may be some last minute fine tuning that can make all the difference.
Once you know what you want to talk about and you have written your thesis statement, you are ready to build the body of your essay.
The thesis statement will usually be followed by the body of the paper, the paragraphs that develop the thesis by explaining your ideas and backing them up with examples or evidence.
This is, of course, the most important part of the paper, because you are giving your reader a clear idea of what you think and why you think it.
After you have completed the body of your paper, you can decide what you want to say in your introduction and in your conclusion.
Development Options
For each reason or main aspect you have to support your thesis, remember to state your point clearly and explain it. One useful technique is to read your thesis sentence over and ask yourself what questions a reader might ask about it. Then answer those questions, explaining and giving examples or evidence.
Compare and contrast: show how one thing is similar to another, and then how the two are different--emphasizing the side that seems more important to you. For example, if your thesis states that "Jazz is a serious art form," you might compare and contrast a jazz composition to a classical one.
You may show your reader what the opposition thinks--that is, reasons why some people do not agree with your thesis--and then refute those reasons--show why they are wrong. On the other hand, if you feel that the opposition isn't entirely wrong, you may say so, that is, concede, but then explain why your thesis is still the right opinion.
Think about the order in which you have made your points. Why have you presented a certain reason or main aspect that develops your thesis first, another second, etc.? If you can't see any particular value in presenting your points in the order you have, think about it some more, until you decide why the order you have is best, or else decide to change the order to one that makes more sense to you.
Finally, as you build the body of your paper, keep revisiting your thesis with three questions in mind. First, does each paragraph develop my thesis? Second, have I done all the development I wish had been done? Third, and most important, am I still satisfied with my working thesis, or have I developed my body in ways that mean I must adjust my thesis to fit what I have learned, what I believe, and what I have actually discussed?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Linking Paragraphs
Remember that you are the driver, and your readers are along for the ride. You don't want to make any sudden turns that will confuse your readers, annoy them, or distract them for a moment because they need to "get their bearings." That's why it's important to link your paragraphs together, giving your readers cues so that they see the relationship between one idea and the next, and how these ideas develop your thesis. Your goal is a smooth transition, a smooth movement from paragraph A to paragraph B, which explains why cue words that link paragraphs are often called transitions. (Still, your link between paragraphs may not be one word, but several, or even a whole sentence.)
Here are some ways of linking paragraphs:
To show simply that another idea is coming: also, moreover, in addition
To show that the next idea is the logical result of the previous one: therefore, consequently, thus, as a result
To show that the next idea seems to go against the previous one, or is not its logical result: however, nevertheless, still
A grab-bag of other choices for "special occasions": most importantly (to show you've come to your strongest point), on the other hand (to show a change in topic), finally (your final point, of course)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Introductions
The first thing to remember about your introduction is--it doesn't have to be the first thing--the first thing that you write, that is. After you have brainstormed and come up with a thesis and developed it in the body of your paper, then you can decide how to introduce your ideas to your reader. There can be a thousand introductions to the same paper--each designed to establish rapport with a different kind of reader.
The goals of an introduction are to:
get your reader's attention / arouse your reader's curiosity
provide any necessary background information before you state your thesis (often the last sentence of the introductory paragraph)
establish why you are writing the paper. You already know why you are writing, and who your reader is; now present that reason for writing to that reader.
Hints for writing your introduction:
Use the W's of journalism to decide what information to give: who, what, when, where. Remember that a history teacher doesn't need to be told "George Washington was the first president of the United States"--keep your reader in mind.
Add another W--why--as in "Why is this paper worth reading?" The answer could be that your topic is new, or controversial, or very important.
Catch your reader by surprise by starting with a description or narrative that doesn't hint at what your thesis will be. For example, a paper could start, "It is less than a 32nd of an inch long, but it can kill an adult human," to begin a paper about eliminating malaria-carrying mosquitoes.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Conclusions
There can be many different conclusions to the same paper (just as there can be many introductions), depending on who your readers are and where you want to direct them, what follow-up you expect of them after they finish your paper. Therefore, re-stating your thesis and summarizing the main points of your body should not be all that your conclusion does. In fact, most weak conclusions are merely re-statements of the thesis and summaries of the body without guiding the reader toward thinking about the implications of the thesis.
Here are some options for writing a strong conclusion:
Make a prediction about the future. Sure, you convinced us that thermal energy is terrific, but do you think it will become the standard energy source? When?
Give specific advice. If your readers now understand that multi-cultural education has great advantages (or disadvantages, or both--whatever your opinion might be), what should they do? Whom should they contact?
Put your topic in a larger context. Once you have proven that physical education should be part of every school's curriculum, perhaps we should consider other "frill" courses which are actually essential.
A final, important reminder: just as a conclusion should not be just a re-statement
of your thesis and summary of your body, it should also not be an entirely new topic, a door opened that you barely lead your reader through and leave them there lost. Just as in finding your topic and in forming your thesis, the safe and sane rule in writing a conclusion is, neither too little nor too much.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Revising and Proofreading
What is revising?
Writing is only half the job of writing. What's the answer to this riddle? Well, the writing process begins even before you put pen to paper. And, once you finish actually writing, the process continues. What you have written is not the finished essay, but a first draft--and, as you go over it each time to improve it, a second draft, third draft, as many as necessary to do the job right. Your final draft, edited and proofread, is your essay, ready for your reader's eyes.
Remember, though, that revision of an essay is not simply proofreading. Proofreading is checking over a draft to make sure that everything is complete and correct as far as spelling, grammar, sentence structure, punctuation, and such matters go; it's a necessary, if somewhat tedious and tricky job, one that a friend could help you with--even if that friend is a "Spellcheck" on a computer. No machine can help you with true revision, however, nor would you want it to--a re-vision of your essay, how you see things now, deciding whether your thesis and body, and also your introduction and conclusion, really express your vision.
Revision is global, taking another look at what ideas you have included in your paper and how they are arranged; proofreading is polishing, one spot at a time. That's why revision should come before proofreading: why polish what you might be changing anyway?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Hints for Revising and Proofreading
Leave some time--an hour, a day, several days--between writing and revising. You need some distance to switch from writer to editor, some distance between your initial vision and your re-vision.
Double check your writing assignment to be sure you haven't gone off course. It's all right if you've shifted from your original plan--if you know why you did and are happier this way.
Read aloud, and slowly. You need to get your eye and your ear to work together: at each point that something seems "funny," read it over again; if you're not sure what's wrong, or even if something's wrong, make a notation in the margin and come back to it later. Watch out for "padding." Tighten your sentences to eliminate excess words that dilute your ideas. Also be on the lookout for points that seem vague or incomplete; these could be wonderful opportunities for rethinking, clarifying, and further developing an idea.
Get to know what your particular quirks are as a writer--every writer has them! Do you give examples without explaining them, or forget links between paragraphs? Leave an extra re-reading or two just for your personal "favorites."
Get someone else into the act! Have others read your draft, or read it to them. Invite questions, and ask questions yourself, to see if your points are clear and well-developed. Remember, though, that some well-meaning "amateurs," including spouses, can be too easy--or too hard--on a piece of writing, especially one by someone close. Never change anything unless you are convinced that it should be changed.
Keep tools at hand, such as a dictionary, a thesaurus, and a writing handbook. Use them!
If you're using word processing, remember that computers are wonderful resources for editing and revising.
When you feel you've done everything you can, first by revising and then by proofreading, and have a nice clean final draft, put it aside and return later to re-see the whole essay. There may be some last minute fine tuning that can make all the difference.
Using Quotations in your Paper
Using Quotations in your Paper
A research paper blends your own ideas and information from expert sources.
Use summaries and paraphrases most often to support your own ideas. Use direct quotations only when the information is so well presented
How to Leave out Part of a Quotation
For example, if the quotation is "This movie is wonderful drivel," you can't quote it as "This movie is wonderful . . ." and leave out the word "drivel," since it changes the meaning of the quotation.
1. Deleting Words at the Start of a Quotation
If you are deleting words at the beginning of a quotation, simply start the quotation at the appropriate place to show that words have been left out:
The New York Times reports, however, that screening for cystic fibrosis is "quietly creeping into clinical practice" (Swerdlow 66). [MLA format]
2. Deleting Words in the Middle of a Quotation
To delete words in the middle of a quotation, show that words have been omitted by using ellipses, a series of three periods separated by spaces. For example, the whole quotation is this:
"'Human improvement' is a fact of life, not because of the state eugenics committee, but because of consumer demand" (Kevlev 75). [MLA format]
If you choose to leave out the middle phrases you could do it this way:
"'Human improvement' is a fact of life . . . because of consumer demand" (Kevlev, 1994, 75). [APA format]
3. Deleting Words at the End of a Quotation
If you leave out words at the end of a quotation and the end of the quotation also coincides with the end of your sentence, place the ellipses at the end of your sentence:
Today we have the "Republicans, who are more nationalist than socialist, and the Democrats, who are more socialist than nationalist . . . ." (Smith, 1995, 3). [APA format]
If you leave out words at the end of a quotation and more of the sentence follows, then simply work the quotation into the structure of your sentence, without using ellipses:
Today we have the "Republicans, who are more nationalist than socialist, and the Democrats, who are more socialist than nationalist," thus confirming the dilemma of modern U.S. politics (Smith, 1995, 3). [APA format]
Adding Information to a Quotation
For example:
Holmes stated that "The chair on which the body was found was covered in a formerly yellow, now a brownish, blood-stained tabaret [upholstery with satin stripes]" (5). [MLA format]
(In this case, you'd need to define "tabaret" for a general reading public.)
Or:
"He [William Dean Howells] was 'fierce to shut out' of his study the voices and faces of his family in 'pursuit of the end' which he 'sought gropingly, blindly and with very little hope but with an intense ambition, and a courage that gave way under no burden, before no obstacles'" (Kirk and Kirk xxxvi). [MLA format]
(In this case, you'd need to clarify the person to whom the "he" refers.)
Or:
"Stephen Crane's experience as a journalist [as Berryman affirms] provided the impetus for his fiction" (Walcutt 22). [MLA format]
(In this case, the writer provides a brief comment on the information to let the reader know that two major critics of Crane agree.)
Long Quotations
If you decide to use a quotation that is longer than four lines, it is not put in quotation marks but rather indented from the left.
Using a Quote Within a Quote
If you need to quote something that already includes a quotation in it, then place the regular "double" quotation marks at the beginning and the end of the complete quotation, and use special "single" quotation marks for the quote within the quote. It looks like this:
"Blake disposes of Menroy's definition of realism, which he calls 'naturalism in disguise'" (Zwerbe 13). [MLA format]
A research paper blends your own ideas and information from expert sources.
Use summaries and paraphrases most often to support your own ideas. Use direct quotations only when the information is so well presented
How to Leave out Part of a Quotation
For example, if the quotation is "This movie is wonderful drivel," you can't quote it as "This movie is wonderful . . ." and leave out the word "drivel," since it changes the meaning of the quotation.
1. Deleting Words at the Start of a Quotation
If you are deleting words at the beginning of a quotation, simply start the quotation at the appropriate place to show that words have been left out:
The New York Times reports, however, that screening for cystic fibrosis is "quietly creeping into clinical practice" (Swerdlow 66). [MLA format]
2. Deleting Words in the Middle of a Quotation
To delete words in the middle of a quotation, show that words have been omitted by using ellipses, a series of three periods separated by spaces. For example, the whole quotation is this:
"'Human improvement' is a fact of life, not because of the state eugenics committee, but because of consumer demand" (Kevlev 75). [MLA format]
If you choose to leave out the middle phrases you could do it this way:
"'Human improvement' is a fact of life . . . because of consumer demand" (Kevlev, 1994, 75). [APA format]
3. Deleting Words at the End of a Quotation
If you leave out words at the end of a quotation and the end of the quotation also coincides with the end of your sentence, place the ellipses at the end of your sentence:
Today we have the "Republicans, who are more nationalist than socialist, and the Democrats, who are more socialist than nationalist . . . ." (Smith, 1995, 3). [APA format]
If you leave out words at the end of a quotation and more of the sentence follows, then simply work the quotation into the structure of your sentence, without using ellipses:
Today we have the "Republicans, who are more nationalist than socialist, and the Democrats, who are more socialist than nationalist," thus confirming the dilemma of modern U.S. politics (Smith, 1995, 3). [APA format]
Adding Information to a Quotation
For example:
Holmes stated that "The chair on which the body was found was covered in a formerly yellow, now a brownish, blood-stained tabaret [upholstery with satin stripes]" (5). [MLA format]
(In this case, you'd need to define "tabaret" for a general reading public.)
Or:
"He [William Dean Howells] was 'fierce to shut out' of his study the voices and faces of his family in 'pursuit of the end' which he 'sought gropingly, blindly and with very little hope but with an intense ambition, and a courage that gave way under no burden, before no obstacles'" (Kirk and Kirk xxxvi). [MLA format]
(In this case, you'd need to clarify the person to whom the "he" refers.)
Or:
"Stephen Crane's experience as a journalist [as Berryman affirms] provided the impetus for his fiction" (Walcutt 22). [MLA format]
(In this case, the writer provides a brief comment on the information to let the reader know that two major critics of Crane agree.)
Long Quotations
If you decide to use a quotation that is longer than four lines, it is not put in quotation marks but rather indented from the left.
Using a Quote Within a Quote
If you need to quote something that already includes a quotation in it, then place the regular "double" quotation marks at the beginning and the end of the complete quotation, and use special "single" quotation marks for the quote within the quote. It looks like this:
"Blake disposes of Menroy's definition of realism, which he calls 'naturalism in disguise'" (Zwerbe 13). [MLA format]
Finding Sources--explanation
Primary & Secondary Sources
Magazines & Journals
Indexes & Abstracts
Newspaper Indexes
Reference Books
Library of Congress Subject Heading Index
Books
Internet Resources
Knowledgeable People
Gathering Information for Essays which Require Research: Background
Key words are words that relate to your topic but are not necessarily in your thesis statement
Books are generally a great resource--they often contain a lot of information gathered into one place, and they can give you a more thorough investigation of your topic. As you are reading a book, journal article, or newspaper article, you should keep the following questions in mind, which will help you understand how useful the book will be to you.
1. Is the book or article biased in a particular way?
2. Does the author agree or disagree with my thesis?
3. Is the information presented accurately, to the best of your knowledge? Is the author him/herself using valid sources?
Periodicals
Internet/World Wide Web Research
A rule of thumb when doing internet research: if you aren't sure whether or not the source is credible, DON'T USE IT!!
Taking notes, paraphrasing, and quoting
Taking notes is an important part of doing research. Be sure when you take notes that you write down the source that they are from!
While taking notes, also be sure to write down the page number of the information. You will need this later on when you are writing your paper.
What do I take notes on?
Good question. You should take notes on ideas and concepts that you think are important to include in your paper.
You also can include supporting examples that you think would be helpful to refer to. You should NOT write the words down exactly as they appear on the page, unless you are putting them in quotation
you might accidentally write them into your paper that way, and that would be plagiarism.
Be sure to write down the page number that you are working from in case you want to refer back to it.
Using quotes, or What if I want the exact words?
If you come across a passage in your reading and it seems to you that the author's language is more accurate, more touching, or more informative than you could create, then you should write that sentence down exactly as you see it, with quotation marks around the sentence(s). You must be very careful to record the page number that this information is from, because you will need to include it in your paper.
Quotes should not be used terribly often--if your paper is nothing more than a series of quotes strung together (and yes, we have all written those!)
What about summarizing and paraphrasing?
Summarizing and paraphrasing are similar to quoting in that you are recording the author's ideas. Once again, be sure to jot down the page number--you will need it later. Any time you summarize or paraphrase, you MUST acknowledge the source of your information. Not only is it a professional requirement, it is a way to avoid plagiarism.
Documentation
Any time that you use information that is not what is considered "common knowledge," you must acknowledge your source. For example, when you paraphrase or quote, you need to indicate to your reader that you got the information from somewhere else. This scholarly practice allows your reader to follow up that source to get more information.
You must create what is called a citation in order to acknowledge someone else's ideas. You use parentheses () in your text, and inside the parentheses you put the author's name and the page number
Finding Sources
Primary and Secondary Sources
Primary sources are original, first-hand documents such as creative works, research studies, diaries and letters, or interviews you conduct.
Secondary sources are comments about primary sources such as analyses of creative work or original research, or historical interpretations of diaries and letters.
You can use a combination of primary and secondary sources to answer your research question, Exercise 6:
Magazines and Journals
Magazines are written for the general public, so they contain articles that do not present a subject in depth.
Journals are written by and for professionals in various fields and will provide you with in-depth, specific information.
Indexes & Abstracts
An index lists magazine or journal articles by subject.
An abstract is like an index with a brief description of the article's content added.
Newspaper Indexes
The most commonly used index to newspaper articles is the New York Times Index, organized alphabetically by subject.
Reference Books
There are many general reference books that may be useful to your research in a variety of ways.
1. General Encyclopedias (Britannica, Americana, etc.)
2. Specialized Encyclopedias (e.g., music or medical terms)
3. Facts on File, Statistical Abstracts
4. Other reference books
Library of Congress subject Heading Index
The Library of Congress provides an indexing system; most academic libraries index their books using Library of Congress subject headings. The Library of Congress publishes a Subject Heading Index listing all of the subject headings that they use.
Books
Internet Resources
The Internet can link you up with individuals who might have expertise on the topic you are researching. You can find these people by joining electronic discussion groups (newsgroups) or maillists.
Magazines & Journals
Indexes & Abstracts
Newspaper Indexes
Reference Books
Library of Congress Subject Heading Index
Books
Internet Resources
Knowledgeable People
Gathering Information for Essays which Require Research: Background
Key words are words that relate to your topic but are not necessarily in your thesis statement
Books are generally a great resource--they often contain a lot of information gathered into one place, and they can give you a more thorough investigation of your topic. As you are reading a book, journal article, or newspaper article, you should keep the following questions in mind, which will help you understand how useful the book will be to you.
1. Is the book or article biased in a particular way?
2. Does the author agree or disagree with my thesis?
3. Is the information presented accurately, to the best of your knowledge? Is the author him/herself using valid sources?
Periodicals
Internet/World Wide Web Research
A rule of thumb when doing internet research: if you aren't sure whether or not the source is credible, DON'T USE IT!!
Taking notes, paraphrasing, and quoting
Taking notes is an important part of doing research. Be sure when you take notes that you write down the source that they are from!
While taking notes, also be sure to write down the page number of the information. You will need this later on when you are writing your paper.
What do I take notes on?
Good question. You should take notes on ideas and concepts that you think are important to include in your paper.
You also can include supporting examples that you think would be helpful to refer to. You should NOT write the words down exactly as they appear on the page, unless you are putting them in quotation
you might accidentally write them into your paper that way, and that would be plagiarism.
Be sure to write down the page number that you are working from in case you want to refer back to it.
Using quotes, or What if I want the exact words?
If you come across a passage in your reading and it seems to you that the author's language is more accurate, more touching, or more informative than you could create, then you should write that sentence down exactly as you see it, with quotation marks around the sentence(s). You must be very careful to record the page number that this information is from, because you will need to include it in your paper.
Quotes should not be used terribly often--if your paper is nothing more than a series of quotes strung together (and yes, we have all written those!)
What about summarizing and paraphrasing?
Summarizing and paraphrasing are similar to quoting in that you are recording the author's ideas. Once again, be sure to jot down the page number--you will need it later. Any time you summarize or paraphrase, you MUST acknowledge the source of your information. Not only is it a professional requirement, it is a way to avoid plagiarism.
Documentation
Any time that you use information that is not what is considered "common knowledge," you must acknowledge your source. For example, when you paraphrase or quote, you need to indicate to your reader that you got the information from somewhere else. This scholarly practice allows your reader to follow up that source to get more information.
You must create what is called a citation in order to acknowledge someone else's ideas. You use parentheses () in your text, and inside the parentheses you put the author's name and the page number
Finding Sources
Primary and Secondary Sources
Primary sources are original, first-hand documents such as creative works, research studies, diaries and letters, or interviews you conduct.
Secondary sources are comments about primary sources such as analyses of creative work or original research, or historical interpretations of diaries and letters.
You can use a combination of primary and secondary sources to answer your research question, Exercise 6:
Magazines and Journals
Magazines are written for the general public, so they contain articles that do not present a subject in depth.
Journals are written by and for professionals in various fields and will provide you with in-depth, specific information.
Indexes & Abstracts
An index lists magazine or journal articles by subject.
An abstract is like an index with a brief description of the article's content added.
Newspaper Indexes
The most commonly used index to newspaper articles is the New York Times Index, organized alphabetically by subject.
Reference Books
There are many general reference books that may be useful to your research in a variety of ways.
1. General Encyclopedias (Britannica, Americana, etc.)
2. Specialized Encyclopedias (e.g., music or medical terms)
3. Facts on File, Statistical Abstracts
4. Other reference books
Library of Congress subject Heading Index
The Library of Congress provides an indexing system; most academic libraries index their books using Library of Congress subject headings. The Library of Congress publishes a Subject Heading Index listing all of the subject headings that they use.
Books
Internet Resources
The Internet can link you up with individuals who might have expertise on the topic you are researching. You can find these people by joining electronic discussion groups (newsgroups) or maillists.
Developing a Research Question
Developing a Research Question
focus your research
as "What are the pros and cons of Sri Lankan Tele Centers management style?" is easier to research and can be covered more fully and in more depth.
How do you develop a usable research question?
Choose an appropriate topic or issue for your research, one that actually can be researched (Exercise 1).
+++++
Mphil
What are the pros and cons in micro economic based e learning for sustaining tele centers ?
How can impact be measured in micro economic based e learning strategies for sustaining tele centers ?
What are the impacts of micro economic based e learning strategies for sustaining a tele centers ?
How can micro economic based e learning strategies help sustaining tele centers ?
++++++
It's a good idea to evaluate your research question
Ask your writing tutor for feedback on your research question also should check your research question with your course tutor.
Topic/Issue
A topic is what the essay or research paper is about. It provides a focus for the writing. Of course, the major topic can be broken down into its components or smaller pieces (e.g., the major topic of nuclear waste disposal may be broken down into medical, economic, and environmental concerns).
But the important thing to remember is that you should stick with just one major topic per essay or research paper in order to have a coherent piece of writing.
An issue is a concept upon which you can take a stand. While "Micro Economic Tele Center Sustainability" is a topic, "sustaining micro economic based tele center with e Learning " is an issue, or a "point of discussion, debate, or dispute" .
Choose a Question that is Neither Too Broad or Too Narrow
Ask the following 8 questions to evaluate the quality of your research question and the ease with which you should be able to answer it:
1. Does the question deal with a topic or issue that interests me enough to spark my own thoughts and opinions? YES
2. Is the question easily and fully researchable?
YES - Shilpa Sayura, e Bit, ICDL, e Citizen, ICT cources
3. What type of information do I need to answer the research question?
What it means by sustainability in a TC model
(Study Sub post offices, Tution chools)
Tele Centers providing micro economic e Learning
TCs micro economic pay behaviors
No of Users, Micro Revenues, Student Result,
HR statisticsD
TC e Learning Case Studies
TC finances
TC Sustainability Economics
E.g., The research question, "What impact ...?," will obviously require statistics of economic, social before and after statistics,
Is the scope of this information reasonable (e.g., can I really research it ?
5. Given the type and scope of the information that I need, is my question too broad, too narrow, or okay?
bit broad but OK
6. What sources will have the type of information that I need to answer the research question
Tele Center journals, Social Enterprice books, e Learning, ICTD & Tele Center Internet resources, ICTA & government documents, people, TC operational Statistics, TC M & E)?
7. Can I access these sources? YES
8. Given my answers to the above questions, do I have a good quality research question that I actually will be able to answer by doing research? YES
focus your research
as "What are the pros and cons of Sri Lankan Tele Centers management style?" is easier to research and can be covered more fully and in more depth.
How do you develop a usable research question?
Choose an appropriate topic or issue for your research, one that actually can be researched (Exercise 1).
+++++
Mphil
What are the pros and cons in micro economic based e learning for sustaining tele centers ?
How can impact be measured in micro economic based e learning strategies for sustaining tele centers ?
What are the impacts of micro economic based e learning strategies for sustaining a tele centers ?
How can micro economic based e learning strategies help sustaining tele centers ?
++++++
It's a good idea to evaluate your research question
Ask your writing tutor for feedback on your research question also should check your research question with your course tutor.
Topic/Issue
A topic is what the essay or research paper is about. It provides a focus for the writing. Of course, the major topic can be broken down into its components or smaller pieces (e.g., the major topic of nuclear waste disposal may be broken down into medical, economic, and environmental concerns).
But the important thing to remember is that you should stick with just one major topic per essay or research paper in order to have a coherent piece of writing.
An issue is a concept upon which you can take a stand. While "Micro Economic Tele Center Sustainability" is a topic, "sustaining micro economic based tele center with e Learning " is an issue, or a "point of discussion, debate, or dispute" .
Choose a Question that is Neither Too Broad or Too Narrow
Ask the following 8 questions to evaluate the quality of your research question and the ease with which you should be able to answer it:
1. Does the question deal with a topic or issue that interests me enough to spark my own thoughts and opinions? YES
2. Is the question easily and fully researchable?
YES - Shilpa Sayura, e Bit, ICDL, e Citizen, ICT cources
3. What type of information do I need to answer the research question?
What it means by sustainability in a TC model
(Study Sub post offices, Tution chools)
Tele Centers providing micro economic e Learning
TCs micro economic pay behaviors
No of Users, Micro Revenues, Student Result,
HR statisticsD
TC e Learning Case Studies
TC finances
TC Sustainability Economics
E.g., The research question, "What impact ...?," will obviously require statistics of economic, social before and after statistics,
Is the scope of this information reasonable (e.g., can I really research it ?
5. Given the type and scope of the information that I need, is my question too broad, too narrow, or okay?
bit broad but OK
6. What sources will have the type of information that I need to answer the research question
Tele Center journals, Social Enterprice books, e Learning, ICTD & Tele Center Internet resources, ICTA & government documents, people, TC operational Statistics, TC M & E)?
7. Can I access these sources? YES
8. Given my answers to the above questions, do I have a good quality research question that I actually will be able to answer by doing research? YES
The question is the answer.
Smart questions are essential technology for those who venture on to the Information Highway.
Without strong questioning skills, you are just a passenger on someone else's tour bus. You may be on the highway, but someone else is doing the driving.
Without strong questioning skills, you are unlikely to exercise profitable search strategies which allow you to cut past the Info-Glut Info-Garbage and Info-Glitz which all too often impede the search for Insight.
Sometimes this New Information Landscape seems more like Eliot's Wasteland than a library, more like a yard sale than a gold mine. The weaker the questioning and learning skills, the less value one is likely to discover or uncover.
Prime Questions
Why? How? Which?
Why?
Why do things happen the way they do?
This question requires analysis of cause-and-effect and the relationship between variables. It leads naturally to problem-solving (the How question) or to decision-making (the Which is best? question).
Why does the sun fall each day? Why does the rain fall? Why do some people throw garbage out their car windows? Why do some people steal? Why do some people treat their children badly? Why can't I ask more questions in school?
How?
How could things be made better?
This question is the basis for problem-solving and synthesis. Using questions to pull and change things around until a new, better version emerges.
How? is the inventor's favorite question. How is the tool which fixes the broken furnace and changes the way we get cash from a bank. How inspires the software folks to keep sending us upgrades and hardware folks to create faster chips. How is the question which enables the suitor to capture his or her lover's heart. How is the reformer's passion and the hero's faith.
Which is best?
Which do I select?
This question requires thoughtful decision-making - a reasoned choice based upon explicit (clearly stated) criteria and evidence.
Questioning Toolkit
Essential Questions
Elaborating Questions
Clarification Questions
Irrelevant Questions
Hypothetical Questions
Unanswerable Questions
Strategic Questions
Provocative Questions
Telling Questions
Divergent Questions
Probing Questions
Inventive Questions
Planning Questions
Testing Questions
Without strong questioning skills, you are just a passenger on someone else's tour bus. You may be on the highway, but someone else is doing the driving.
Without strong questioning skills, you are unlikely to exercise profitable search strategies which allow you to cut past the Info-Glut Info-Garbage and Info-Glitz which all too often impede the search for Insight.
Sometimes this New Information Landscape seems more like Eliot's Wasteland than a library, more like a yard sale than a gold mine. The weaker the questioning and learning skills, the less value one is likely to discover or uncover.
Prime Questions
Why? How? Which?
Why?
Why do things happen the way they do?
This question requires analysis of cause-and-effect and the relationship between variables. It leads naturally to problem-solving (the How question) or to decision-making (the Which is best? question).
Why does the sun fall each day? Why does the rain fall? Why do some people throw garbage out their car windows? Why do some people steal? Why do some people treat their children badly? Why can't I ask more questions in school?
How?
How could things be made better?
This question is the basis for problem-solving and synthesis. Using questions to pull and change things around until a new, better version emerges.
How? is the inventor's favorite question. How is the tool which fixes the broken furnace and changes the way we get cash from a bank. How inspires the software folks to keep sending us upgrades and hardware folks to create faster chips. How is the question which enables the suitor to capture his or her lover's heart. How is the reformer's passion and the hero's faith.
Which is best?
Which do I select?
This question requires thoughtful decision-making - a reasoned choice based upon explicit (clearly stated) criteria and evidence.
Questioning Toolkit
Essential Questions
Elaborating Questions
Clarification Questions
Irrelevant Questions
Hypothetical Questions
Unanswerable Questions
Strategic Questions
Provocative Questions
Telling Questions
Divergent Questions
Probing Questions
Inventive Questions
Planning Questions
Testing Questions
Sources , Summaries & Paraphrases
Evaluating Sources
There are four questions to ask when evaluating sources: 1. How Well does the Source answer the Research Question?2. Is the Information Provided by an Expert?3. Is the Source Valid?4. Is there a Variety of Sources?
Writing Summaries & Paraphrases
The ability to summarize and paraphrase is an essential academic skill all students must develop. Writers use summaries and paraphrases in research papers to substantiate their ideas since they do not need to use every word of every relevant source.
A summary is a condensed version of the main ideas of all or part of a source, written in your own words.
A paraphrase is a rewording of a particular point in a source.
Remember, do not include your own ideas or commentary in the body of the summary or paraphrase. Your own ideas should come after the summary or paraphrase. You don't want your reader to become confused about which information is yours and which is the source's. \
And you always have to document summaries and paraphrases since the ideas are not your own.
Documenting Sources
Documenting Sources--explanation
Why Document?
Academic Integrity
What to Document
Can you Document Too Much?
Where to Document
Plagiarism
Documentation Formats
Documenting Within the Paper - MLA
Documenting Within the Paper - APA
Documenting Sources Within the Paper - Turabian
Documenting at the End of the Paper - MLA
Documenting at the End of the Paper - APA
Documenting at the End of the Paper - Turabian
APA Guidelines for Electronic Sources
MLA Guidelines for Electronic Sources
Turabian Guidelines for Electronic Sources
Chicago Manual of Style
Chicago/Turabian Documentation
Chicago Manual of Style Citation Guide
Documentation Exercises
Where to Document
Documentation Within the Paper - MLA
Documentation Within the Paper - APA
Documentation Within the Paper - Turabian
Documentation at End of Paper - MLA
Documentation at End of Paper - APA
Documentation at the End of the Paper - Turabian
Ask the Writing Tutor about your own Documentation
There are four questions to ask when evaluating sources: 1. How Well does the Source answer the Research Question?2. Is the Information Provided by an Expert?3. Is the Source Valid?4. Is there a Variety of Sources?
Writing Summaries & Paraphrases
The ability to summarize and paraphrase is an essential academic skill all students must develop. Writers use summaries and paraphrases in research papers to substantiate their ideas since they do not need to use every word of every relevant source.
A summary is a condensed version of the main ideas of all or part of a source, written in your own words.
A paraphrase is a rewording of a particular point in a source.
Remember, do not include your own ideas or commentary in the body of the summary or paraphrase. Your own ideas should come after the summary or paraphrase. You don't want your reader to become confused about which information is yours and which is the source's. \
And you always have to document summaries and paraphrases since the ideas are not your own.
Documenting Sources
Documenting Sources--explanation
Why Document?
Academic Integrity
What to Document
Can you Document Too Much?
Where to Document
Plagiarism
Documentation Formats
Documenting Within the Paper - MLA
Documenting Within the Paper - APA
Documenting Sources Within the Paper - Turabian
Documenting at the End of the Paper - MLA
Documenting at the End of the Paper - APA
Documenting at the End of the Paper - Turabian
APA Guidelines for Electronic Sources
MLA Guidelines for Electronic Sources
Turabian Guidelines for Electronic Sources
Chicago Manual of Style
Chicago/Turabian Documentation
Chicago Manual of Style Citation Guide
Documentation Exercises
Where to Document
Documentation Within the Paper - MLA
Documentation Within the Paper - APA
Documentation Within the Paper - Turabian
Documentation at End of Paper - MLA
Documentation at End of Paper - APA
Documentation at the End of the Paper - Turabian
Ask the Writing Tutor about your own Documentation
Developing a Research Thesis
A research thesis has most of the same thesis characteristics as a thesis for a non-research essay. The difference lies in the fact that you gather information and evidence from appropriate, valid sources to support your perspective on a topic or stand on an issue. Yet depth more than breadth is the hallmark of a sophisticated research paper.
main arguments and focus their research by specifying and ordering the reasons for their stance: a research thesis is your proposed answer to your research question, which you finalize only after completing the research.
Thesis Characteristics
Whenever you are writing to explain something to your reader or to persuade your reader to agree with your opinion, there should be one complete sentence that expresses the main idea of your paper.
"the main idea" and "the controlling idea. Based on everything you've read, and thought, and brainstormed, the thesis is not just your topic, but what you're saying about your topic.
once you've come up with the central question, the thesis is an answer to that question.
Handy reminders about the thesis:
1. Where to put it
2. Put it as a statement 3.
Don't go overboard4.
Focus further 5.
Choose the right shape
6. Exercise: Thesis statement
Were to Put the ThesisIn introductory paragraph, which prepares the reader to listen to your ideas, Hidden in it the questions your reader will expect you to answer in the body. the body of the paper, which develops the thesis with reasons, explanations, and evidence or examples.
Put the Thesis as a Statement
Make sure your thesis is in the form of a statement, not a question. "Can we save the Amazon rain forest?" is an ear-catching question that might be useful in the introduction, but it doesn't express an opinion or perspective as the following statements do:
"We can save the Amazon rain forest by limiting tourist presence, boycotting goods made by companies that deplete the forest's resources, and generally educating people about the need to preserve the rain forest in order to preserve the earth's ecological systems."
Don't go Overboard!
Make sure your thesis expresses your true opinion and not an exaggerated version of it. Don't say "Computers are wonderful" or "Computers are terrible" if what you really believe is "Computers do more good than harm" or "Computers do more harm than good."
Why commit yourself to an extreme opinion that you don't really believe in, and then look like you're contradicting yourself later on?
Focus Further
Make sure your thesis covers exactly the topic you want to talk about, no more and no less. "Drugs should not be legalized" is too large a thesis if all you want to talk about is marijuana. "Boxing should be outlawed" is too small a thesis if you also want to discuss wrestling and football. Bite off as much as you can chew thoroughly--then chew it!
Choose the Right Shape
Shape your thesis to fit the question you wish to answer. A thesis can come in many forms, including the following: Simply stating an opinion "Langston Hughes was a master stylist." Indicating categories or reasons "Langston Hughes was a master stylist because of his vivid imagery, surprising metaphors, and effective alliteration." Showing two aspects of a topic and emphasizing one (in this sample, the 2nd topic in the sentence is emphasized) "While Langston Hughes was a master stylist, as a critic he had several blind spots."
Exercise: Thesis Statement
Directions: Suppose you've been answering a research question about adult illiteracy in the United States, and have a fourteen-page draft about how widespread the problem is, six or seven pages analyzing the causes of the problem, and six or seven pages evaluating possible solutions and proposing one you feel would be effective.
Adult illiteracy poses the greatest threat to America today.
Adult illiteracy has many causes, but it can be eliminated.
How can the problem of adult illiteracy in America be effectively addressed?
main arguments and focus their research by specifying and ordering the reasons for their stance: a research thesis is your proposed answer to your research question, which you finalize only after completing the research.
Thesis Characteristics
Whenever you are writing to explain something to your reader or to persuade your reader to agree with your opinion, there should be one complete sentence that expresses the main idea of your paper.
"the main idea" and "the controlling idea. Based on everything you've read, and thought, and brainstormed, the thesis is not just your topic, but what you're saying about your topic.
once you've come up with the central question, the thesis is an answer to that question.
Handy reminders about the thesis:
1. Where to put it
2. Put it as a statement 3.
Don't go overboard4.
Focus further 5.
Choose the right shape
6. Exercise: Thesis statement
Were to Put the ThesisIn introductory paragraph, which prepares the reader to listen to your ideas, Hidden in it the questions your reader will expect you to answer in the body. the body of the paper, which develops the thesis with reasons, explanations, and evidence or examples.
Put the Thesis as a Statement
Make sure your thesis is in the form of a statement, not a question. "Can we save the Amazon rain forest?" is an ear-catching question that might be useful in the introduction, but it doesn't express an opinion or perspective as the following statements do:
"We can save the Amazon rain forest by limiting tourist presence, boycotting goods made by companies that deplete the forest's resources, and generally educating people about the need to preserve the rain forest in order to preserve the earth's ecological systems."
Don't go Overboard!
Make sure your thesis expresses your true opinion and not an exaggerated version of it. Don't say "Computers are wonderful" or "Computers are terrible" if what you really believe is "Computers do more good than harm" or "Computers do more harm than good."
Why commit yourself to an extreme opinion that you don't really believe in, and then look like you're contradicting yourself later on?
Focus Further
Make sure your thesis covers exactly the topic you want to talk about, no more and no less. "Drugs should not be legalized" is too large a thesis if all you want to talk about is marijuana. "Boxing should be outlawed" is too small a thesis if you also want to discuss wrestling and football. Bite off as much as you can chew thoroughly--then chew it!
Choose the Right Shape
Shape your thesis to fit the question you wish to answer. A thesis can come in many forms, including the following: Simply stating an opinion "Langston Hughes was a master stylist." Indicating categories or reasons "Langston Hughes was a master stylist because of his vivid imagery, surprising metaphors, and effective alliteration." Showing two aspects of a topic and emphasizing one (in this sample, the 2nd topic in the sentence is emphasized) "While Langston Hughes was a master stylist, as a critic he had several blind spots."
Exercise: Thesis Statement
Directions: Suppose you've been answering a research question about adult illiteracy in the United States, and have a fourteen-page draft about how widespread the problem is, six or seven pages analyzing the causes of the problem, and six or seven pages evaluating possible solutions and proposing one you feel would be effective.
Adult illiteracy poses the greatest threat to America today.
Adult illiteracy has many causes, but it can be eliminated.
How can the problem of adult illiteracy in America be effectively addressed?
How to Develop Your Research Questionby Martha Brown Menard Ph.DMassage Therapy Journal – Winter 1996, v. 35, n. 1, pp. 97-98)
Research is a time-consuming, detail-oriented processoften routine tasks not emotionally fulfilling or intellectually stimulating but still need to be performed.
You are genuinely curious about the question you are investigating so that you can stay motivated to the successful completion of your study.
Curiosity is also an asset in terms of stimulating questions for future studies.
Think about how manageable the scope of the study is, what resources are available to you. available participants or subjectsmoney and time to conduct the studyaccess to technical support and expertise.
For a quantitative study, consider the cost of statistical help for research design and data analysis.
With qualitative studies, consider the availability and cost of training interviewers and professional help for transcribing the interviews.
Qualitative studies generally tend to be time and labor intensive in terms of both collecting data and analyzing it,
A frequent problem is that the proposed study is too broad in scope, and attempts to answer too many questions at once.
It is much better to ask a narrowly defined question that can be investigated with a reasonable amount of time, money, and effort.
If you have given some thought to addressing these practical issues, potential collaborators will be more inclined to listen to your idea.
They will take it (and you) more seriously.
A third consideration is the novelty factor, or the potential of your study to contribute something new to the knowledge base.
In order to know whether your question meets this criterion, you must review the existing research literature to see what work has already been done.
This does not mean, however, that your project needs to be completely original. It can be worthwhile to replicate a previous study with different populations or settings, or to improve upon weaknesses in the research design. Reading about other studies will provide necessary background, help you get familiar with terminology, major issues and areas of interest in the field, and expose you to examples of different types of research designs.
You may decide as a result to revise or change your questions altogether.
Although it is important that the conclusion of your study be trustworthy all together, a single study rate “proves” something incontrovertibly;
Related to novelty is the relevance of the research question—what is the point of answering this question?
What will you learn as a result?
Established organizations and funding sources are interested in how your study might add to existing knowledge, guide future studies, or have implications for education, clinical practice of health care policy.
If your question fails to pass the “So what?” test, chances are that you will have difficulty getting anyone else interested in providing institutional support. It is also more likely that you may lost interest and motivation yourself.
Finally, you need to ask yourself: is it ethical? Studies that invade people’s privacy or pose possible physical or psychological risks are ethically unacceptable.
Think about any potential risks that your proposed study could entail for subjects or participants, and then ask yourself what benefits might accrue to offset these. Remember that an important purpose of research is not only to satisfy curiosity, but to promote the welfare of people
ethical concerns and standards in research.
Because these factors are interrelated with each other, a decision you make regarding one area may have consequences in all the others. For example, the cost of the instrument or measure you would like to use is prohibitive, so another must be found that is still appropriate to the research question. You may not be able to get access to the ideal subjects or participants, or there simply may not be enough of them. An ethical problem may necessitate modifying your question, or reframing it altogether.
The work that you put into this initial phase shows potential collaborators that you have given some thought to these considerations, even if you have not yet worked out a completely detailed protocol for your proposed study.
Summary
Developing a research question that is interesting, feasible, novel, relevant, and ethical is work that takes time and energy. It is also an essential endeavor that will help you enlist potential collaborators and funding for your idea. Plan on spending at least a month to two months, and remember that this is an iterative process—you will frequently go back and revise as you search the relevant literature, and sort through the practical aspects. Scientists are not often suddenly inspired to dash off in one sitting a complete outline of a fully developed research question. So, take it one step at a time, and get advice from others whenever you can. Ask colleagues for their opinion; some may be interested in working with you. Find out what resources are available to you locally. You may already know health care professionals or people from other fields with research experience who can help you. Consider taking an introductory course in research methods, or offer to work on someone else’s project in exchange for advice and consultations.
Although it is hard and sometimes tedious work, resarch can be an intellectual challenge that is intrinsically rewarding. It is also very gratifying to feel that your work can contribute to the advancement of knowledge in your profession, thus benfiting clients. I encourage you to begin.
Resources for further readingBausell, R.B. (1994). Conducting meaningful experiments: 40 steps to becoming a scientist. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications. (This is proof that good things come in small packages. This book that describes in down to earth terms what it takes, and doesn’t take, to be a scientist, and how to develop research that actually has the potential to help people or improve the human condition.)
Krathwohl, D. (1988). How to prepare a research proposal. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press. (A shorter version of some of the same information as his text on research methods plus a helpful guide for a general research proposal or dissertation proposal.)
Ries, J., and Keukefeld, C. (1995). Applying for research funding. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications, Inc. (A detailed, step by step guide for those interested in preparing a grant proposal.)
Research is a time-consuming, detail-oriented processoften routine tasks not emotionally fulfilling or intellectually stimulating but still need to be performed.
You are genuinely curious about the question you are investigating so that you can stay motivated to the successful completion of your study.
Curiosity is also an asset in terms of stimulating questions for future studies.
Think about how manageable the scope of the study is, what resources are available to you. available participants or subjectsmoney and time to conduct the studyaccess to technical support and expertise.
For a quantitative study, consider the cost of statistical help for research design and data analysis.
With qualitative studies, consider the availability and cost of training interviewers and professional help for transcribing the interviews.
Qualitative studies generally tend to be time and labor intensive in terms of both collecting data and analyzing it,
A frequent problem is that the proposed study is too broad in scope, and attempts to answer too many questions at once.
It is much better to ask a narrowly defined question that can be investigated with a reasonable amount of time, money, and effort.
If you have given some thought to addressing these practical issues, potential collaborators will be more inclined to listen to your idea.
They will take it (and you) more seriously.
A third consideration is the novelty factor, or the potential of your study to contribute something new to the knowledge base.
In order to know whether your question meets this criterion, you must review the existing research literature to see what work has already been done.
This does not mean, however, that your project needs to be completely original. It can be worthwhile to replicate a previous study with different populations or settings, or to improve upon weaknesses in the research design. Reading about other studies will provide necessary background, help you get familiar with terminology, major issues and areas of interest in the field, and expose you to examples of different types of research designs.
You may decide as a result to revise or change your questions altogether.
Although it is important that the conclusion of your study be trustworthy all together, a single study rate “proves” something incontrovertibly;
Related to novelty is the relevance of the research question—what is the point of answering this question?
What will you learn as a result?
Established organizations and funding sources are interested in how your study might add to existing knowledge, guide future studies, or have implications for education, clinical practice of health care policy.
If your question fails to pass the “So what?” test, chances are that you will have difficulty getting anyone else interested in providing institutional support. It is also more likely that you may lost interest and motivation yourself.
Finally, you need to ask yourself: is it ethical? Studies that invade people’s privacy or pose possible physical or psychological risks are ethically unacceptable.
Think about any potential risks that your proposed study could entail for subjects or participants, and then ask yourself what benefits might accrue to offset these. Remember that an important purpose of research is not only to satisfy curiosity, but to promote the welfare of people
ethical concerns and standards in research.
Because these factors are interrelated with each other, a decision you make regarding one area may have consequences in all the others. For example, the cost of the instrument or measure you would like to use is prohibitive, so another must be found that is still appropriate to the research question. You may not be able to get access to the ideal subjects or participants, or there simply may not be enough of them. An ethical problem may necessitate modifying your question, or reframing it altogether.
The work that you put into this initial phase shows potential collaborators that you have given some thought to these considerations, even if you have not yet worked out a completely detailed protocol for your proposed study.
Summary
Developing a research question that is interesting, feasible, novel, relevant, and ethical is work that takes time and energy. It is also an essential endeavor that will help you enlist potential collaborators and funding for your idea. Plan on spending at least a month to two months, and remember that this is an iterative process—you will frequently go back and revise as you search the relevant literature, and sort through the practical aspects. Scientists are not often suddenly inspired to dash off in one sitting a complete outline of a fully developed research question. So, take it one step at a time, and get advice from others whenever you can. Ask colleagues for their opinion; some may be interested in working with you. Find out what resources are available to you locally. You may already know health care professionals or people from other fields with research experience who can help you. Consider taking an introductory course in research methods, or offer to work on someone else’s project in exchange for advice and consultations.
Although it is hard and sometimes tedious work, resarch can be an intellectual challenge that is intrinsically rewarding. It is also very gratifying to feel that your work can contribute to the advancement of knowledge in your profession, thus benfiting clients. I encourage you to begin.
Resources for further readingBausell, R.B. (1994). Conducting meaningful experiments: 40 steps to becoming a scientist. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications. (This is proof that good things come in small packages. This book that describes in down to earth terms what it takes, and doesn’t take, to be a scientist, and how to develop research that actually has the potential to help people or improve the human condition.)
Krathwohl, D. (1988). How to prepare a research proposal. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press. (A shorter version of some of the same information as his text on research methods plus a helpful guide for a general research proposal or dissertation proposal.)
Ries, J., and Keukefeld, C. (1995). Applying for research funding. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications, Inc. (A detailed, step by step guide for those interested in preparing a grant proposal.)
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